## Wednesday, September 3, 2014

### Mathbox update: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Today I just put the finishing touches on a proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which is the first theorem from the Formalizing 100 Theorems list to be proven since the creation of this blog, and has been the main reason for my recent fixation on real analysis and basic properties of integrals. Hopefully this means that integrals can now actually be useful tools for more interesting proofs rather than objects of study of themselves. There is also a proof of the Mean Value Theorem and Rolle's theorem, among other things. I may describe proof overviews for some of the theorems in this list in later posts; the theorems below that are proven on this blog are marked with an asterisk and linked at the end.

Note that almost all of these theorems were necessary in order to complete the proof; it is an interesting exercise to see how some of these seemingly unrelated theorems in totally different fields are used in the final proof of the FTC. (To track the usage of a theorem, use the "This theorem is referenced by:" list at the end of the proof page.)
• fofinf1o: Complementary to f1finf1o, this shows that a surjection from a finite set to another of the same size is a bijection (f1finf1o shows the same assuming an injection).
• wlogle: Inspired by a similar theorem in HOL Light (another formalization language), we show that if a predicate satisfies $\varphi(x,y)\leftrightarrow \varphi(y,x)$, i.e. it is symmetric under interchange of $x,y$, then "without loss of generality" we can assume that $x\le y$ in a proof that $\forall x,y:\varphi(x,y)$.
• ifle: A nice property of the conditional operator ${\rm if}(\varphi,x,y)$ (read "if $\varphi$ then $x$, else $y$", or in piecewise notation as $\begin{cases}x&\varphi\\y&\lnot\varphi\end{cases}$) is that it can transform an implication into an inequality. To be precise, if $y\le x$, then $\varphi\to\psi$ implies ${\rm if}(\varphi,x,y)\le{\rm if}(\psi,x,y)$ (and the converse is also true if $x<y$).
• cnrecnv, cnrehmeo: The canonical map $\Bbb R^2\to\Bbb C$ is the function $\langle x,y\rangle\mapsto x+iy$. We already know from cnref1o that this map is invertible; here we show that the inverse is $z\mapsto\langle\Re\,z,\Im\,z\rangle$. Since all the functions involved here are known to be continuous, this allows us to deduce that the map is a homeomorphism, and so $\Bbb R^2$ under the product topology is homeomorphic to $\Bbb C$ under the metric topology.
• max0add: The identity $f^++f^-=|f|$, where $f^+=\max(f,0)$ and $f^-=\max(-f,0)$ are the positive and negative part functions. See also max0sub which shows $f^+-f^-=f$.
• txbas2: If $B$ and $C$ are topology bases, then $\{u\times v\,|\,u\in B,v\in C\}$ is also a basis for a topology, where $u\times v$ is the cartesian product of sets. This generalizes txbas which assumes that $B$ and $C$ are topologies.
• txbasval: The topological product $\scr B\times\scr C$ is defined as the topology generated by the basis discussed in the last bullet, but it is only defined on topologies, not topological bases. Here we show that if $B$ is a basis for $\scr B$ and $C$ is a basis for $\scr C$, then $\{u\times v\,|\,u\in B,v\in C\}$ is a basis for $\scr B\times\scr C$. Note the difference from the definition, which defines $\scr B\times\scr C$ as the topology generated by $\{u\times v\,|\,u\in{\scr B},v\in{\scr C}\}$ - we see that it is sufficient to consider rectangles of basis elements and not topology elements.
• iccntr: The interior of the closed interval $[x,y]$ is the open interval $(x,y)$, in the standard topology on the reals.
• volsup2*, volcn*, volivth*: The intermediate value theorem for Lebesgue measure: Given a measurable set $A$, there is a measurable subset of $A$ of any measure $0\le x\le\operatorname{vol}(A)$.
• I changed the token for the set of all (Lebesgue) integrable functions from the made-up $f\in{\rm Itgbl}$ to $f\in L^1$, since the latter actually seems to be in use and so may be more understandable to the lay-mathematician.
• mbfimaopn, mbfimaopn2: The preimage of an open set under a measurable function is measurable. Note in particular that these are open sets in the complex topology, not the real topology; the proof essentially proceeds by showing that open rectangles with rational coordinates form a countable basis for the topology on $\Bbb C$.
• cncombf: The composition $g\circ f$ is measurable if $f$ is measurable and $g$ is continuous. This could be generalized to $g$ Borel-measurable, but I don't feel like defining the Borel
• itg2gt0*, itggt0*: If $\operatorname{vol}(A)>0$ and $f>0$ on $A$, then $\int_A f>0$. This is a nice proof that is discussed in a previous post.
• itg2cn, itgcn: Absolute continuity of the Lebesgue integral. If $f$ is integrable, then for any $\varepsilon>0$ there is a $\delta>0$ such that for any measurable set $A$ with $\operatorname{vol}(A)<\delta$, $\int_A|f|<\varepsilon$. Note that no assumptions on $f$ other than integrability are needed.
• itgeqa: If two functions are equal almost everywhere, then they have the same integrable and one is integrable iff the other is.
• itgss3: If $A\subseteq B$ and $B\setminus A$ is a nullset, then $f$ is integrable on $A$ iff it is integrable on $B$ and the integrals are the same.
• iblsub, itgsub: If $f,g$ are integrable, then $f-g$ is integrable and $\int(f-g)=\int f-\int g$.
• itgfsum: If $f_1,f_2,\dots f_n$ are integrable, then $\sum_{k=1}^nf_k$ is integrable and $\int_A\sum_{k=1}^nf_k=\sum_{k=1}^n\int_Af_k$.
• iblabs, iblabsr: If $f$ is a measurable function, then $f$ is integrable iff $|f|$ is integrable.
• iblmulc2, itgmulc2: If $f$ is integrable and $c\in\Bbb C$, then $c\cdot f$ is integrable and $\int_Ac\cdot f=c\int_Af$.
• itgabs: If $f$ is integrable, then $|\int_Af|\le\int_A|f|$. This is another nice proof that works on arbitrary complex functions $f$.
• dvcj: The derivative $(f(x)^*)'$ is $f'(x)^*$, where ${}^*$ denotes the conjugate function. This does not follow from dvcof (the chain rule) because ${}^*$ is not differentiable as a complex function and is just the identity as a real function.
• dvfre: The derivative of a real function is a real function.
• dvmptid, dvmptc, dvmptadd, $\dots$, dvmptco: These theorems are nothing new in terms of actual content, in the sense that we already have formulas for the derivative of a sum, product, etc.; rather these are designed to be easy to use in proofs so that one can quickly differentiate a function given by a formula, in a sense providing an "algorithm" for differentiation. Supported here are the rules: $$c'=0\quad x'=1\quad (f+g)'=f'+g'\quad (fg)'=f'g+g'f\quad (cf)'=cf'\quad (-f)'=-f'$$ $$(f-g)'=f'-g'\quad (f^*)'=f'^*\quad (\Re\,f)'=\Re\,f'\quad (\Im\,f)'=\Im\,f'$$ Also the chain rule $(f(g(x)))'=f'(g(x))g'(x)$ as well as restriction theorems: if $f:X\to\Bbb C$ is differentiable on $X$ and $Z\subseteq X$, $Y=Z^\circ$ is the interior of $Z$, then $(f\upharpoonright Z)'=f'\upharpoonright Y$.
• rolle: Rolle's theorem. If $f:[a,b]\to\Bbb R$ is continuous on $[a,b]$, differentiable on $(a,b)$, and $a<b$ and $f(a)=f(b)$, then there is an $x\in(a,b)$ such that $f'(x)=0$.
• mvth: The Mean Value Theorem. If $f:[a,b]\to\Bbb R$ is continuous on $[a,b]$, differentiable on $(a,b)$, and $a<b$, then there is an $x\in(a,b)$ such that $f'(x)=\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}$.
• dveq0: If $f:[a,b]\to\Bbb R$ is continuous on $[a,b]$ and differentiable with derivative $0$ on $(a,b)$, then $f$ is a constant function.
Finally we get to the main theorem. Recall, though, that the "fundamental theorem" is really several separate but related theorems; we state them here.
• ftc1a: Let $f:D\to\Bbb C$ be an integrable function, and $(a,b)\subseteq D\subseteq\Bbb R$ with $a\le b$. Define $G:[a,b]\to\Bbb C$ by $G(x)=\int_a^xf(t)\,dt$. Then $G$ is a continuous function on $[a,b]$.
• ftc1: Now assume that $f$ is also continuous at some $c\in(a,b)$. Then $G$ is differentiable at $c$, and $G'(c)=f(c)$.
• ftc1cn: Simplifying the assumptions, if $f:(a,b)\to\Bbb C$ is continuous and integrable, then $G'=f$.
• ftc2: Let $f:[a,b]\to\Bbb C$ be a function differentiable on $(a,b)$ such that $f'$ is integrable and continuous. Then $\int_a^bf'=f(b)-f(a)$.
If you are familiar with the theorems, you'll see I kinda copped out on the last statement; the assumption that $f'$ is continuous is unnecessary but makes the proof a lot easier. I found a proof in Rudin that uses upper-semicontinuous functions via the Vitali–Carathéodory theorem, but I have not formalized the notion of semicontinuity or the Sorgenfrey line at all, so that seemed like a pain. Maybe I'll revisit it later if it becomes necessary to strengthen the theorem.

This will be theorem #15 of 100 at Formalizing 100 Theorems; as of now there are thus 35 theorems formalized in Metamath. You can see the others at the metamath 100 page.

* These theorems were discussed with natural-language proofs in integral of a positive function.